pros and cons of tyranny in ancient greece

All right, let's take a moment or two to review. Although this Athenian democracy would survive for only two centuries, its invention by Cleisthenes, "The Father of Democracy," was one of ancient Greece's most enduring contributions to the. Support for the tyrants came from the growing middle class and from the peasants who had no land or were in debt to the wealthy landowners. fair to some citizens who had same. "It was then that he exhibited every kind of evil to the citizens. Examples were Cleon of Sicyon, Aristodemus of Megalopolis, Aristomachus I of Argos, Abantidas of Sicyon, Aristippus of Argos, Lydiadas of Megalopolis, Aristomachus II of Argos, and Xenon of Hermione. Periander threw his pregnant wife downstairs (killing her), burnt his concubines alive, exiled his son, warred with his father-in-law and attempted to castrate 300 sons of his perceived enemies. Pros. In his article, "The First Tyrants in Greece," Robert Drews paraphrases Aristotle as saying that the tyrant was a degenerate type of monarch who came to power because of how insufferable the aristocracy was. 911 lone star season 1 episode 1 watch online. Biography of Aristotle, Influential Greek Philosopher and Scientist, M.A., Linguistics, University of Minnesota. Oppression, injustice and cruelty do not have standardized measurements or thresholds. [13] Those who list or rank tyrants can provide definitions and criteria for comparison or acknowledge subjectivity. So were they were evil? Julius Caesar was a Powerful Roman politician and general, who served as a god to the Romans. Comparative criteria may include checklists or body counts. While considered by some as the founder of Athenian democracy, others harken back to Solon or even Theseus. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. amzn_assoc_ad_type = "smart"; This sixth-century ruler came into power by challenging the established aristocracy and transferring much of their power to the lower class. This system of government emerged between the seventh and fifth centuries BCE, as traditional monarchies and aristocracies were challenged. The 17th-century English philosopher John Locke wrote in his essay on civil government: "Tyranny is the exercise of power beyond right. However, tyrants seldom succeeded in establishing an untroubled line of succession. Ancient Greeks, as well as the Roman Republicans, became generally quite wary of many people seeking to implement a popular coup. Aristocracy Types, History & Examples | What is Aristocracy? Pros: Greece is super-affordable, especially when compared to North America and much of the rest of Europe. While previous tyrants in Athens may have been viewed as enlightened, the Thirty Tyrants of Sparta were known for their oppressive and bloody rule. They then founded miniature empires, expanding power beyond the traditional boundaries of the city-states. Advertisement. To mock tyranny, Thales wrote that the strangest thing to see is an aged tyrant meaning that tyrants do not have the public support to survive for long. This was common in the seventh and sixth centuries BCE. They include hiring bodyguards, stirring up wars to smother dissent, purges, assassinations, and unwarranted searches and seizures. For instance, regarding Julius Caesar and his assassins, Suetonius wrote: Therefore the plots which had previously been formed separately, often by groups of two or three, were united in a general conspiracy, since even the populace no longer were pleased with present conditions, but both secretly and openly rebelled at his tyranny and cried out for defenders of their liberty.[28]. Thinkers such as Cicero adopted the language of Greek tyranny to describe Caesars position and debated the moral justification for tyrannicide. There were three main forms of government used in ancient Greece by various city-states. In the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, Greek military leaders used the power of their armies to form mini empires and expand their control through conquest. After his brother's death, Hippias, who had been considered a very mild ruler before, became embittered against the Athenians and started to rule as a tyrant. People in civil society might be legally and morally equal to one another, but . Slavery in Ancient Greece: History & Facts | Who Were Slaves in Athens? Some were benevolent and many worked to improve the arts, infrastructure, and quality of life for those in their tyranny. ; Oligarchy - rule by a select group of individuals. The Rule of Law Vs. Tyranny has been an enemy of many countries throughout the years. The benefit of having an oligarchy in place is that it consolidates power to one dominant group.List of the 5 Cons of an Oligarchy in democratic matters. Pros: Many Tyrants ruled well and helped poor families by cancelling the debts of poor farmers. 173-222. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Battle of Chaeronea | History, Impact & Significance. But as absolute rule became established in the Roman Empire, the terms of debate shifted, focusing on the question of when monarchic power became tyrannical in nature. Niccol Machiavelli conflates all rule by a single person (whom he generally refers to as a prince) with tyranny, regardless of the legitimacy of that rule, in his Discourses on Livy. A ruler who lacks understanding is a cruel oppressor; but one who hates unjust gain will enjoy a long life. Proverbs 28:1516, By justice a king gives stability to the land, but one who makes heavy extractions ruins it. Proverbs 29:4, The sovereign is called a tyrant who knows no laws but his caprice. Voltaire in a Philosophical Dictionary, Where Law ends Tyranny begins. Locke in Two Treatises of Government. The Thirty Tyrants ruled Athens for just over a year, but in that time their policies killed off a sizeable percentage of the city's population. Running a website with millions of readers every month is expensive. The dictatorship existed as an emergency measure whereby one man could be appointed to overall power in the state, but it could be held for six months at most. The negativity came when the son of Peisistratus was murdered. Without a powerful, centralized state, smaller governing bodies created political order. For instance, the popular imagination remembered Peisistratus for an episode related by (pseudonymous) Aristotle, but possibly fictional in which he exempted a farmer from taxation because of the particular barrenness of his plot. That made him effectively a king, superior to all other magistrates and not subject to their veto or appeal, and in that context the idea of tyranny began to be discussed by historians and philosophers. Afterward, Corinth was ruled by a lackluster oligarchy, and was eventually eclipsed by the rising fortunes of Athens and Sparta. It wasn't something evil or bad, it was just a different way of running the government. Democracies held elections to decide their rulers, and monarchies typically passed down the authority to rule through. The Tyrants fled and were hunted down over the next few years. A tyranny is a form of government in which the power to rule rests solely with one person. We contribute a share of our revenue to remove carbon from the atmosphere and we offset our team's carbon footprint. While Greek tyrants were like the modern-day version insofar as they were ambitious and possessed a yearning for . Ancient Greece is often remembered by the modern collective consciousness as a civilization driven by enlightenment. Ancient Greek Tyrant: Definition & Overview, Oligarchy in Ancient Greece | Characteristics, History & Facts, Latin, Samnites & Pyrrhic Wars | Overview, History & Significance, Pericles, the Delian League, and the Athenian Golden Age. "Tyrant" became the word by which the ancient Greeks denoted men who had . The term is usually applied to vicious autocrats who rule their subjects by brutal methods. Balance is still provided in the government. The rulers were not always brutal or cruel and hence the current meaning of tyranny and the old meaning were a little different. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2117/tyrants-of-greece/. Oppressive leaders have held states together (Alexander the Great, Josip Broz Tito). From that springs the idea of tyranny in its modern sense: a situation in which the power of the ruler outweighs that of the ruled. [36], Lengthy recommendations of methods were made to tyrants by Aristotle (in Politics for example) and Niccol Machiavelli (in The Prince). Tyrants often introduced measures to improve the economic and social status of the poor; it was the aristocracy (who wrote the histories) who tended to oppose tyranny, because, in bypassing the constitution, tyranny threatened their traditional privileges. ; Tyranny - rule by an individual who had seized power by unconstitutional means. It was after the fall of the sons of Peisistratus that Cleisthenes and democracy came to Athens. The general trend was that tyrants were aristocrats who seized control of a city-state in the name of security or general welfare. The word derives from Latin tyrannus, meaning illegitimate ruler, and this in turn from the Greek tyrannos monarch, ruler of a polis; tyrannos in its turn has a Pre-Greek origin, perhaps from Lydian. Students should be encouraged to recognise the key differences between contemporary and ancient understandings of the terms 'tyranny' and 'tyrant'. Enlightenment philosophers seemed to define tyranny by its associated characteristics. Drawing support from the wealthy elite of Corinth, Cypselus came to power upon the overthrow of the aristocratic Bacchiadae, the family of his mother. Preferred by Athenians over kings or Aristocracy, Tyranny was avoided by Sparta. The tyrant of Miletus encouraged the young Periander to murder the prominent men of Corinth. Once Athens had democracy, anyone who tried to take it away was simply tyrannical. Lastly, Sparta is the best polis of ancient Greece because women had freedom. I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. In the 4th and 5th centuries BCE, this model of military conquest evolved into the creation of military states. But tyranny nowhere endured. Peisistratos also founded a tyrannical dynasty (called the Peisistratids), remembered for patronizing the arts and laying the groundwork for Athenian democracy. Tyranny. This attitude, according to Plutarch, earned him a great deal of scorn. Submitted by Donald L. Wasson, published on 28 November 2022. However, the term had a different connotation in ancient Greece. best eyebrow waxing near me . (Plutarch, 58). Cleisthenes of Athens was also the brother-in-law of Athens' own tyrant, Peisistratos. Alcamenes, 6th/5th century BC. Through an ambitious program of public works, which included fostering the state cult of Athena; encouraging the creation of festivals; supporting the Panathenaic Games in which prizes were jars of olive oil; and supporting the Dionysia (ultimately leading to the development of Athenian drama), Peisistratus managed to maintain his personal popularity. The first Greek tyrants, while coming from the elite class, came to power because of a desire to avoid the domination of oligarchies. Peisistratus of Athens was an Ancient Greek tyrant. Although some of Peisistratus' actions . Josephus identified tyrants in Biblical history (in Antiquities of the Jews) including Nimrod, Moses, the Maccabees and Herod the Great. Democracy (advantage) Middle class supported this person at first and could demand changes. That in turn spawned new tyrannies and monarchies. The word tyranny is used with many meanings, not only by the Greeks, but throughout the tradition of the great books.[11] The Oxford English Dictionary offers alternative definitions: a ruler, an illegitimate ruler (a usurper), an absolute ruler (despot) or an oppressive, unjust or cruel ruler. It was the Thirty Tyrants of Sparta, a group of tyrants in Athens appointed by the conquering Spartans, who are credited with giving the word tyrant a negative connotation. Specifically, John Locke as part of his argument against the Divine Right of Kings in his book Two Treatises of Government defines it this way: Tyranny is the exercise of power beyond right, which nobody can have a right to; and this is making use of the power any one has in his hands, not for the good of those who are under it, but for his own private, separate advantage.[32] Lockes concept of tyranny influenced the writers of subsequent generations who developed the concept of tyranny as counterpoint to ideas of human rights and democracy. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. This type of government is called a monarchy. As a member, you'll also get unlimited access to over 88,000 Over sixty years ago, it was written of early Greek tyranny that it 'had arisen only in towns where an industrial and commercial regime tended to prevail over rural economy, but where an iron hand was needed to mobilize the masses and to launch them in assault on the privileged classes. Succeeding his father in 627 BCE, Periander was viewed by many as a typical oppressive tyrant. a political unit ruled by a tyrant. Some of the advantages of absolutism include: Efficient decision-making: Absolutism allows for quick and efficient decision-making, as the ruler does not have to consult with a parliament or other governing body before making decisions. His grandson was Cleisthenes of Athens, considered one of the founders of Athenian democracy. Aristocracy. He also identifies liberty with republican regimes. (Herodotus, 408). "Before Turannoi Were Tyrants: Rethinking a Chapter of Early Greek History," by Greg Anderson; Classical Antiquity, (2005), pp. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. Theron, 488-472 BC. Lots of riches. There are different forms of government adopted by the ancient civilization of Greece. It was thought best by the ruling Bacchiads that the young infant should be put to death; unfortunately for Corinth but fortunately for Cypselus, his mother saved him by hiding him in a chest. In Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I, Chapter III, Augustus was shown to assume the power of a tyrant while sharing power with the reformed senate. Tyranny and Democracy in Ancient Greece: The History and Legacy of the Death to Tyrants! : Ancient Greek Democracy and the Struggle against Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. The idea that tyranny vanished in 510 bce, however, is a false one. [] This and no other is the root from which a tyrant springs; when he first appears he is a protector. Perianders successor was less fortunate and was expelled. Wasson, Donald L.. "Tyrants of Greece." Tyranny was first experienced on a large scale by the ancient Greeks both from the external threat posed to their small city-states by the mighty Persian empire and from the tendency of their . Generals began to use the dictatorship unconstitutionally to achieve domination. They had monarchies and democracies for comparison. I feel like its a lifeline. The state is the product of civilization. Such tyrants may act as renters, rather than owners, of the state. Historically speaking, when one refers to a tyrant in world history, they are considered a cruel and malicious ruler who wields absolute authority. The historical definition is best understood from their historical perspective. History remembers the rulers, their rises, methods, and ends and the environment in which they ruled. This is where the idea of tyrants as being evil and oppressive comes from. Alcandros (Alcander), 6th/5th century BC. The dangers threatening the lives of the Sicilian tyrants are highlighted in the moral tale of the Sword of Damocles. lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. "The Classical Definition of a Tyrant." Stability: Since the ruler holds all power . We don't know the details of how Pheidon took power, but he did oversee land reform that weakened and angered the old aristocracy. similarly oppressive and unjust government by more than one person. 1 : oppressive power every form of tyranny over the mind of man Thomas Jefferson especially : oppressive power exerted by government the tyranny of a police state 2 a : a government in which absolute power is vested in a single ruler especially : one characteristic of an ancient Greek city-state b Both say that monarchy, or rule by a single man, is royal when it is for the welfare of the ruled and tyrannical when it serves only the interest of the ruler. Tyrants are a type of monarch, with . A tyrantalso known as a basileus or kingin ancient Greece meant something different from our modern concept of a tyrant as simply a cruel and oppressive despot. Peisistratus was a ruler of Athens during the 6 th century BC. Hippias was ousted by Cleomenes I of Sparta in 510 BCE. By the end of the 4th century, Philip of Macedon had conquered the Greek states and put an end to their political freedom, and under Alexander the Great a huge Macedonian empire was created. [8][9] The final -t arises in Old French by association with the present participles in -ant.[10]. The philosophers Plato and Aristotle defined a tyrant as a person who rules without law, using extreme and cruel methods against both his own people and others. However, Cypselus almost never lived to become a tyrant. Upon his death in 587 BCE, he named Lycophron to succeed him; however, he was murdered before he could leave Corcyra for Corinth. Plutarch quoted him as saying, "While tyranny may be a delightful spot, there is no way back from it" (58). No instances of such circumstances exist that aren't bad. Democracy (advantage) Decision making could be a long/tedious process. In the 6th century BCE, Cleisthenes of Athens is credited for helping to create the first democracy in Athens. In the Republic, Plato stated: The people have always some champion whom they set over them and nurse into greatness. World History Encyclopedia. In the early stages of the Greek polis (city-state), the hereditary aristocracy held all political power and ruled as a group, with the mass of citizens excluded from political life. Pheidon of Argos was a tyrant that lived sometime between the seventh and sixth centuries BCE. A tyrant's son does not usually inherit his father's power. [20] The kings assumption of power was unconventional. In the modern English-languages usage of the word, a tyrant (derived from Ancient Greek , tyrannos) is an absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped a legitimate rulers sovereignty. Periander completed all that Kypselos had left undone in his killing and banishing of Corinthians." To many, the Greeks' world was a progressive, democratic, and peaceful world, populated by philosopher-kings, teachers, athletes, artists, and priests. N.S. Such Sicilian tyrants as Gelo, Hiero I, Hiero II, Dionysius the Elder, Dionysius the Younger, and Agathocles of Syracuse maintained lavish courts and became patrons of culture. Shakespeare portrays the struggle of one such anti-tyrannical Roman, Marcus Junius Brutus, in his play Julius Caesar. Political and military leaders arose to manage conflicts. The last tyrant on the Greek mainland, Nabis of Sparta, was assassinated in 192 BC and after his death the Peloponnese was united as a confederation of stable democracies in the Achaean League. 1.7.2). Polycrates of Samos was a sixth-century tyrant who seized control with his brothers, but then had them exiled or killed and became the city's sole ruler. Last modified November 28, 2022. When the dictatorship [of the tyrant] had served to destroy the aristocracy the people destroyed the dictatorship; and only a few changes were needed to make democracy of freemen a reality as well as a form.[33]. One view sees rivalry between aristocratic families who vied to take all power into their own hands; the other suggests that tyrants were representative of a newly politically conscious dmos (people) who supported their rise in the hope of improving their position within the state. World History Foundation is a non-profit organization registered in Canada. 1. The Semantics of a Political Concept from Archilochus to Aristotle," by Victor Parker; Hermes, 126. Ancient political commentators Plato and Aristotle lived late in the period of many tyrants. Unlike his son and regardless of his cruelty, he did not see the need for a bodyguard. Over the centuries, many different Greek tyrants wielded power. All leaders were once tyrants in their own ways. The outcome of the Greco-Persian Wars was interpreted as the success of the free and democratic Greeks against the autocratic and tyrannical Persian king; consequently, in Athenian writing after 480 bce tyranny became the hated opposite of democracy. ; Our knowledge of the political systems in the ancient Greek world comes from a wide range of . copyright 2003-2023 Study.com. Pros And Cons Of Julius Caesar 1255 Words | 6 Pages. The basic view of aristocracy is that people differ in terms of their basic abilities and aptitudes. The Oracle foretold that he would become a tyrant. Tyranny Cons: Cons: Some tyrants were corrupt. The 7th and 6th centuries BCE witnessed a number of tyrants in both Corinth and Athens. Figures such as Cypselus at Corinth and Cleisthenes at Sicyon offered an alternative to exploitation by the aristocrats, and certainly tyrants introduced reforms intended to please the dmos, codifying the laws and establishing justicePeisistratus in Athens set up traveling courtsand gathering resources for public projects, such as fountains to supply water and grand temples. Dante mentioned tyrants (who laid hold on blood and plunder) in the seventh level of Hell (Divine Comedy) where they are submerged in boiling blood. Pheidon's rule shifted the balance of power in the region and made Argos one of the strongest cities in Greece. noun plural -nies. Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia. are at least 20% cheaper than in the U.S., and costs to rent an apartment can be as much as 70% less. Sparta Government in Ancient Greece | Overview, System & Components, Greek Writing & Cuneiform | Alphabet, System & History, CLEP Western Civilization II: Study Guide & Test Prep, Michigan Merit Exam - Social Studies: Test Prep & Practice, Praxis Middle School - Content Knowledge (5146): Study Guide & Practice, Study.com SAT Test Prep: Practice & Study Guide, Study.com PSAT Test Prep: Practice & Study Guide, NY Regents Exam - Living Environment: Test Prep & Practice, Create an account to start this course today. / ( trn) /. The oppressive government of a tyrant could bring benefits to his people, even promoting social stability. Under those circumstances the idea of tyranny changed from a constitutional issue to an ethical one, and tyrannos, rather than indicating a ruler who was not a king, came to be used to describe a particular type of king: one who put his or her own interests before those of the citizens and acted without restraint by the law. Among those who rose to prominence in Corinth were Cypselus (c. 657-627 BCE) and his son Periander (627-587 BCE). The justification for ousting a tyrant was absent from the historians description but was central to the philosophers. + PRO: Greece is generally affordable Although costs do vary throughout the country, with the mainland being typically cheaper than the islands, Greece has a relatively low cost of living. Pericles of Athens Accomplishments & Facts | Who was Pericles? [37], The methods of tyrants to retain power include placating world opinion by staging rigged elections[17], using or threatening to use violence, [34] and seeking popular support by appeals to patriotism and claims that conditions have improved.[34]. Transport, fuel and basic goods are all reasonably priced. A tyrant was the leader of a tyranny, just as a monarch ruled the monarchy. Herodotus wrote that he was "certainly a more gentle ruler than his father but after communicating with Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus, he became far more bloodthirsty than Kypselos (Cypselus) had ever been" (408). Accusations of tyranny came to refer to the quality of rule rather than its legitimacy: an emperor who abused his power or used it for personal ends was seen as despotic, although it took a brave man to say so in public. Solon would later repeal many of the Draconian laws, except those dealing directly with homicide. Many people were disenfranchised. The anti-tyrannical attitude became especially prevalent in Athens after 508 BC, when Cleisthenes reformed the political system so that it resembled demokratia. The Persians would appoint an intermediary to rule the city with absolute authority in their name. flashcard sets. [5][6] The Encyclopdie defined the term as a usurper of sovereign power who makes his subjects the victims of his passions and unjust desires, which he substitutes for laws. Despite financial help from Persia, in 510 the Peisistratids were expelled by a combination of intrigue, exile and Spartan arms. Ruled by a small group: Oligarchy. to government by one individual (in an autocracy), to government by a minority (in an oligarchy, tyranny of the minority), to government by a majority (in a democracy, tyranny of the majority), Like a roaring lion or a charging bear is a wicked ruler over a poor people. He chose to lay down the role and returned to private life, but his example was noted by Julius Caesar. That definition allows even a representative government to be labeled a tyranny. In the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, Greek military leaders in southern Italy established tyrannies by amassing large armies of mercenaries. What are the pros and cons of democracy in ancient Greece? Try refreshing the page, or contact customer support. What is Considered a "Tyrant" in History? In ancient Greece, a tyrant was basically a person who inherited power or seized power unconstitutionally. Tyranny in Ancient Greece was merely a different form of government. Thus, the tyrants of the Archaic age of ancient Greece (c. 900500 bce)Cypselus, Cleisthenes, Peisistratus, and Polycrateswere popular, presiding as they did over an era of prosperity and expansion. arbitrary, unreasonable, or despotic behaviour or use of authority the teacher's tyranny. Because of the countless advantages seen in many of his reforms, he was given power to revise the constitution and unsound legislation. The 17th-century English philosopher John Locke wrote in his essay on civil government: "Tyranny is the exercise of power beyond right. Terms in this set (36) In fact he was such a good ruler, that Aristotle, writing a couple of centuries later, had to devise a special category for him, and Aristotle's accounts tyranny is bad, but for Pisistratus as I say, he had to make an exception because Pisistratus was acknowledged as having been such a ruler . Hippias managed politics and the economy, while Hipparchus focused on furthering the arts in the city. Chin Shih-huang is the first emperor of China. Cons. Against these rulers, in 280 BC the democratic cities started to join forces in the Achaean League which was able to expand its influence even into Corinthia, Megaris, Argolis and Arcadia. Draco enacted a series of callous laws where even minor offenses such as stealing fruit and vegetables carried severe penalties. However, early Greek tyrants were not deemed as brutal as others but, instead, were considered both wise and moderate. He united seven separate kingdoms into a single nation. The government structure of the United Kingdom is a good example of this. There were several pros and cons associated with absolutism. By 133 bce the growth of the empire had changed Rome from a small city-state to a global power, and the conquest of Italy and the Mediterranean had created the conditions for individual generals to gain both enormous wealth through conquest and a huge following among their soldiers, paving the way for them to seek personal power through military force. These usurpers overturned the Greek polis and often came to power on a wave of popular support. [27] Tyranny was associated with imperial rule and those rulers who usurped too much authority from the Roman Senate. Related Content We would much rather spend this money on producing more free history content for the world. tyranny, in the Greco-Roman world, an autocratic form of rule in which one individual exercised power without any legal restraint. His laws were deemed to be so strict that he was once accused of writing them in blood. Lethal military. Pros: All citizens got to vote and have their opinion expressed. "The First Tyrants in Greece," by Robert Drews; Historia: Zeitschrift fr Alte Geschichte, Bd. History is full of tyrants. He established one of the greatest and long-lasting tyrannies in Greece. What are the pros and cons of oligarchy? More than any other, these Greek rulers are most responsible for the present-day meaning of the word tyrant. Under the Macedonian hegemony in the 4th and 3rd century BC a new generation of tyrants rose in Greece, especially under the rule of king Antigonus II Gonatas, who installed his puppets in many cities of the Peloponnese. A tyrant was little more than an autocrat or leader who had overturned an existing regime of a Greek polis and was, therefore, an illegitimate ruler, a usurper. It was different from a monarchy. The political methods of obtaining power were occasionally supplemented by theater or force. However, among those mentioned--only four of them actually written in the history, where the ancient inhabitants of Greece had used and applied. Biblical quotations do not use the word tyrant, but express opinions very similar to those of the Greek philosophers, citing the wickedness, cruelty and injustice of rulers. Those who were advocates of liberty tended to be pro-Republic and pro-Senate. Some even led to the creation of democracies. A modern tyrant might be objectively defined by proven violation of international criminal law such as crimes against humanity.[14][15][16].

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