when did israel became a nation in the bible

Their departure was largely organized by Zionist activists in Poland under the umbrella of the semi-clandestine organization Berihah ("Flight"). Israels geography is very diverse in that on its north are snow-capped mountains whereas the south has a desert conditions. That's the meaning that would have . Shimon Peres informally replaced him as prime minister, leading the Alignment in the subsequent elections. [259], The General Assembly's vote caused joy in the Jewish community and anger in the Arab community. Kastner lost the trial and was assassinated two years later. It was hoped this would reduce the power of small parties to extract concessions in return for coalition agreements. Israel received financial aid from private donations from outside the country (mainly the United States). The principal non-Zionist Orthodox Jewish (or Haredi) party, Agudat Israel, recommended to UNSCOP that a Jewish state be set up after reaching a religious status quo agreement with Ben-Gurion regarding the future Jewish state. [368][369] In April 2014, Israel suspended peace talks after Hamas and Fatah agreed to form a unity government. 30,000 Palestinian Jews and 12,000 Palestinian Arabs enlisted in the British armed forces during the war. The Economies of Africa & the Middle East, Marshall Plan & Berlin Airlift | Overview, Purpose, & Significance, The Attack on Pearl Harbor | The Beginning of American Involvement in World War II. This had a long-term effect on those areas, which remained sparsely populated for centuries. [311] In 1972 the US Jewish Mafia leader, Meyer Lansky, who had taken refuge in Israel, was deported to the United States. In 1799 Napoleon briefly occupied the country and planned a proclamation inviting Jews to create a state. This discussion focuses primarily on the modern state of Israel. However, in 1952, an antisemitic public trial was staged in Moscow in which a group of Jewish doctors were accused of trying to poison Stalin (the Doctors' plot), followed by a similar trial in Czechoslovakia (Slnsk trial). A 120-seat parliament, the Knesset, met first in Tel Aviv then moved to Jerusalem after the 1949 ceasefire. The Christian world's response to the loss of Jerusalem came in the Third Crusade of 1190. The coalition's victory in the Gulf War opened new possibilities for regional peace, and in October 1991 the US president, George H. W. Bush, and Soviet Union Premier, Mikhail Gorbachev, jointly convened a historic meeting in Madrid of Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders. In Egypt they took control of the kingdom following a failed invasion by the Crusaders (Seventh Crusade). In May 2004, Israel launched Operation Rainbow in southern Gaza to create a safer environment for the IDF soldiers along the Philadelphi Route. But I think the above prophecy more than likely referred instead to the reinstatement of Israel after captivity in the nations, which occurred in Old Covenant times. According to both the Bible and the Talmud, the Davidic dynasty continued as head of Babylonian Jewry, called the "Rosh Galut" (exilarch or head of exile). On 11 June, a month-long UN truce was put into effect. [117], In 132 CE, the Bar Kokhba revolt erupted. Despite efforts to finalize the peace agreement, the conflict continues to play a major role in Israeli and international political, social, and economic life. [274] Some 300,000 arrived from Asian and North African nations as part of the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries. The 2,000-strong Jewish community of Cochin had already migrated in 1954. Those arrested were held without trial. At this time, God made a covenant with Abraham (Abram until God changed his name to Abraham in Gen 17:5) that we call the "Abrahamic Covenant." The term Syria-Palaestina was already in use in the Greco-Roman world at least five centuries earlier. Israeli analysts believe Ahmadinejad has worked to undermine the peace process with arms supplies and aid to Hezbullah in South Lebanon and Hamas in Gaza,[345] and is developing nuclear weapons, possibly for use against Israel. Likud won the most seats (27). Sadat's two-day visit included a speech before the Knesset and was a turning point in the history of the conflict. In 1994, the IsraelJordan peace treaty was signed. [357][358] In March 2012, Secretary-general of the Popular Resistance Committees, Zuhir al-Qaisi, a senior PRC member and two additional Palestinian militants were assassinated during a targeted killing carried out by Israeli forces in Gaza. In Eastern Europe, new nations emerged from the Habsburg Empire, Russian Empire and Ottoman Empire (which between them ruled most of Eastern Europe), but the new nationalists mostly regarded Jews as an unwanted presence. [343], In April 2006 Ariel Sharon was incapacitated by a severe hemorrhagic stroke and Ehud Olmert became Prime Minister.[344]. "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel". Britain and France had already begun secret preparations for military action. In 1983, the May 17 Agreement was signed between Israel and Lebanon, paving the way for an Israeli withdrawal from Lebanese territory through a few stages. With Soviet backing, the Arab states, particularly Egypt, were continuing to build up their forces. The Hebrew calendar closely resembles the Babylonian calendar and probably dates from this period. [215], In 1929 tensions grew over the Kotel (Wailing Wall), the holiest spot in the world for Modern Judaism, which was then a narrow alleyway where the British banned Jews from using chairs or curtains: Many of the worshippers were elderly and needed seats; they also wanted to separate women from men. 174,000 arrived between 1933 and 1936, despite large sums the British demanded for immigration permits: Jews had to prove they had 1,000 pounds (families with capital), 500 pounds if they had a profession and 250 pounds if they were skilled labourers. [388], Following the March 2021 election, Naftali Bennett signed a coalition agreement with Yair Lapid and different parties opposed to Netanyahu on the right, center and left whereby Bennett would serve as Prime Minister until September 2023 and then Lapid would assume the role until November 2025. In October 2011, a deal was reached between Israel and Hamas, by which the kidnapped Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit was released in exchange for 1,027 Palestinians and Arab-Israeli prisoners. [304] Israel considered the Straits of Tiran closure a Casus belli. The war concluded with Hezbollah evacuating its forces from Southern Lebanon, while the IDF remained until its positions could be handed over to the Lebanese Armed Forces and UNIFIL. It happens that 1260 plus 1260 days is an important seven-year period in the bible, referred to in Rev. The construction of monasteries by monks near pagan settlements throughout the country encouraged the conversion of the regional pagan population. [31][32][33] According to McNutt, "It is probably safe to assume that sometime during Iron Age I a population began to identify itself as 'Israelite'", differentiating itself from the Canaanites through such markers as the prohibition of intermarriage, an emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion. It became the largest single UN agency and is the only UN agency that serves a single people. Although many of the events in the Bible and Tanakh cannot be corroborated with other sources, it is certain that on and off for hundreds of years there was a Jewish kingdom along the Eastern Mediterranean. First known in the historical record as Canaan, the area became a hotbed of competing civilisations and cultures. In 691, Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik (685705) constructed the Dome of the Rock shrine on the Temple Mount, where the two Jewish temples had been located. To set the context let me take you back to 2006. For example, in the late 1960s, Israel launched a preemptive strike against Egypt and Syria and quickly took control of the Golan Heights, all of Jerusalem and most of the West Bank, virtually eliminating the Palestinian state from territorial existence. He was eventually released by the Babylonians. Several earlier Old Testament passages shed light on this mystery. [19], The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel (as ysrr) occurs in the Egyptian Merneptah Stele, erected for Pharaoh Merneptah (son of Ramesses II) c. 1209 BCE, which states "Israel is laid waste and his seed is not. Significantly antisemitic governments came to power in Poland (the government increasingly boycotted Jews and by 1937 had totally excluded all Jews),[222] Hungary, Romania and the Nazi created states of Croatia and Slovakia, while Germany annexed Austria in 1938 and the Czech territories (starting with the Sudetenland in 1938). [351] Following the takeover, Egypt and Israel imposed a partial blockade, on the grounds that Fatah had fled and was no longer providing security on the Palestinian side, and to prevent arms smuggling by terrorist groups. European countries were not willing to give up any of their lands for the Jewish cause. The conflict marked the end of West-European dominance in the Middle East. [60] The Samaritans claim to be descended from Israelites of ancient Samaria who were not expelled by the Assyrians. The sons by Leah (Jacob's first wife) were: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun. The Second Temple was subsequently completed c. 515 BCE. Although many Jews wanted to leave Nazi Germany, the Nazis prevented Jews from taking any money and restricted them to two suitcases so few could pay the British entry tax and many were afraid to leave. 'Israel: A History' (Brandeis University Press/University Press of New England; 2012) 502 pages; Sharon, Assaf, "The Long Paralysis of the Israeli Left" (review of Dan Ephron, Shatz, Adam, "We Are Conquerors" (review of, This page was last edited on 3 March 2023, at 09:34. [162] Over the ensuing several centuries, the region experienced a drastic decline in its population, from an estimated 1 million during Roman and Byzantine times to some 300,000 by the early Ottoman period. Of the sons of Isaac, He set aside Esau, and chose Jacob. In 1961 he was put on trial, and after several months found guilty and sentenced to death. [61] The tunnel could provide water during a siege and its construction is described in the Bible. The Israelis retreated after destroying the camp, however the Israelis sustained unexpectedly high casualties and the attack was not viewed as a success. Other states in Western Europe and North America followed during the 19th Century, leading to Jews gaining civil rights and economic freedom. The riots led to right-wing Zionists establishing their own militia in 1931, the Irgun Tzvai Leumi (National Military Organization, known in Hebrew by its acronym "Etzel"), which was committed to a more aggressive policy towards the Arab population. [324] Constant casualties among Israeli soldiers and Lebanese civilians led to growing opposition to the war in Israel. Stager, Lawrence. window.google_analytics_uacct="UA-2994532-3"; [327][328], Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat signed the IsraeliPalestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip on 28 September 1995 in Washington. In 1979, the EgyptIsrael peace treaty was signed, based on the Camp David Accords. [57] The records of Sargon II of Assyria indicate that he captured Samaria and deported 27,290 inhabitants to Mesopotamia. From the 11th century to the 13th century, the Land of Israel became the centre for intermittent religious wars between Christian and Muslim armies as part of the Crusades. The latter recently suggested a state comprising the territories of Judah and Ephraim during the time of David, that was subsequently enlarged to include areas of northern Samaria and influence areas in the Galilee and Transjordan. [349], In June 2007 Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip in the course of the Battle of Gaza,[350] seizing government institutions and replacing Fatah and other government officials with its own. In 2007 education was made compulsory until the age of 18 for all citizens (it had been 16). In 64 BCE the Roman general Pompey conquered Syria and intervened in the Hasmonean civil war in Jerusalem, restoring Hyrcanus II as High Priest and making Judea a Roman vassal kingdom. These 10 Bible prophecies were fulfilled in 1948 when Israel became an independent, united nation for the second time in history, and for the first time in 2,900 years. However, Gemayal was assassinated before an agreement could be signed, and one day later Phalangist Christian forces led by Elie Hobeika entered two Palestinian refugee camps and massacred the occupants. In May 1991, during a 36-hour period, 15,000 Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews) were secretly airlifted to Israel. [339][340] In October 2000, Palestinians destroyed Joseph's Tomb, a Jewish shrine in Nablus. Although July 15, 537 B.C. [211] Between 1924 and 1929, over 80,000 Jews arrived in the Fourth Aliyah,[192] fleeing antisemitism and heavy tax burdens imposed on trade in Poland and Hungary, inspired by Zionism[212] and motivated by the closure of United States borders by the Immigration Act of 1924 which severely limited immigration from Eastern and Southern Europe. [105], Augustus made Judea a Roman province in 6 CE, deposing the last Jewish king, Herod Archelaus, and appointing a Roman governor. The result of his analysis was Plan Dalet, in which Haganah passed from the defensive to the offensive. [249] The alliance between Haganah and Etzel was dissolved after the King David bombings. In the diaspora, US Jews now dominated the Zionist movement. Since then, Israeli relations with its Arab neighbors and the Palestinian population within Israel has alternated between contentious peace and all-out war. [393], This article is a historical overview of the, For a historical overview focused on the biblical kingdoms, see. He was assassinated by one of his Generals, Baibars, who went on to eliminate most of the Crusader outposts. Arab and Jewish sources show that the Rosh Galut continued to exist for another 1,500 years in what is now Iraq, ending in the eleventh century.[80]. [110], The revolt's failure had profound demographic, theological, political, and economic consequences. In 1948, the British simply walked away. The major political parties now competed for immigrants to join their education systems. David Samuels and Khaled Abu Toameh have stated that the uprising was planned much earlier. The party was a component of every Israeli coalition until 1992, usually running the Ministry of Education. [58] It is likely that Shalmaneser captured the city since both the Babylonian Chronicles and the Hebrew Bible viewed the fall of Israel as the signature event of his reign. The Children of Israel settled in Goshen for 430 years, growing from a clan of 70 into a great nation of 600,000. [290] The plan failed when eleven agents were arrested. According to the Byzantine historian, Procopius, the Byzantine army recovered it in 533 and brought it to Constantinople. The Nazis proposed their own solution: that the Jews of Europe be shipped to Madagascar (the Madagascar Plan). On 25 July 1993, Israel carried out a week-long military operation in Lebanon to attack Hezbollah positions. Unfortunately, since Jewish people were always the minority in a community, they were often blamed for any crime or disease that occurred. "Necropolis of Bet She'arim: A Landmark of Jewish Renewal", Jewish and Christian Views on Bodily Pleasure: Their Origins and Relevance in the Twentieth-Century, "The Fatimid Holy City: Rebuilding Jerusalem in the Eleventh Century", "The Influence of the Muslim Conquest on the Settlement Pattern of Palestine during the Early Muslim Period / - ", "Moses Maimonides | Jewish philosopher, scholar, and physician", "Print of Jews forced to listen to a Christian sermon - Collections Search - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum", "In 1918, the art of an Armenian genocide survivor changed Jerusalem forever", "CONVENTION BETWEEN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA RESPECTING TILE Rights of the Governments of the two Countries and their respective Nationals in Palestine Signed at London, December 3, 1924", "Peel Commission Full Report (1937) - English", "The Evian Conference of 1938 and the Jewish Refugee Crisis", "This Day in Jewish History 1940: Italy Bombs Tel Aviv During WWII", "When Palestinian Arabs and Jews fought the Nazis side by side", "Jews in North Africa: Oppression and Resistance", "Unrra Polls Displaced Jews on Emigration Plans; First Vote Shows Palestine is Favored", "Survivors of the Holocaust Educational Materials Education & E-Learning", "The Population of Palestine Prior to 1948", "A debt the British paid and one they didn't Features Jerusalem Post", "Cracow, Poland, Postwar, Yosef Hillpshtein and his friends of the Bericha movement", UNITED NATIONS: General Assembly: A/364 3 September 1947: Chapter I: The Origin and Activities of UNSCOP: A. The Book of Joshua and the accounts of the kingship of David and Solomon in the book of Kings are believed to have the same author. [96] Under John Hyrcanus and his sons, Aristobulus I and Alexander Jannaeus, Hasmonean territory continued to expand. So long as Israel controls a large portion of the historical borders of Palestine, Israeli-Arab relations will most likely continue to be poor. During 1971, violent demonstrations by the Israeli Black Panthers, made the Israeli public aware of resentment among Mizrahi Jews at ongoing discrimination and social gaps. The Arab League reacted to the peace treaty by suspending Egypt from the organization and moving its headquarters from Cairo to Tunis. [219] There has been speculation that he was assassinated by the Nazis to hide the connection but there is no evidence for it. Part I paragraph 2 UN resolution 181(II), sfn error: no target: CITEREFYoav_Gelber2006 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFDominique_LapierreLarry_Collins1971 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFHenry_Laurens2005 (, Green Line: the name given to the 1949 Armistice lines that constituted the de facto borders of pre-1967 Israel , The melting pot in Israel: the commission of inquiry concerning education in the early years of the state by Tzvi Tzameret, Albany 2002 chapter 7. Before Israels formation, there had been a great migration of Jewish people from all over the world, especially from Europe. Receive his book 7 Signs of the End Times for FREE when you sign up for his monthly newsletter. However, Britain continued to hold (formerly illegal) Jewish immigrants of "fighting age" and their families on Cyprus until March 1949. Miller (1997); Halpern (2001), 229262; Liverani (2005), 92101. [172] In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tatars who decimated the city's Christian population, drove out the Jews and razed the city. [221] After 1938, the British tried to prevent immigration, mostly due to the outbreak of the 1936-1939 Arab Revolt. Yet, more than 2,000 years in advance the Old Testament prophets announced God's plan to restore Israel in our time. In 1953 the party-affiliated education system was scrapped and replaced by a secular state education system and a state-run Modern Orthodox system. Hamas won the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, the first and only genuinely free Palestinian elections. Israel only made limited ground gains until the launch of Operation Changing Direction 11, which lasted for 3 days with disputed results. The Mauritian Shekel: The Story of Jewish Detainees in Mauritius, 1940-1945 by Genevive Pitot, Rowman 2000, Between National Socialism and Soviet Communism: Displaced Persons in Postwar Germany by Anna Holian Michigan 2011 pp 1812. The British Mandate (in effect, British rule) of Palestine, including the Balfour Declaration, was confirmed by the League of Nations in 1922 and came into effect in 1923. [24] Two groups appear at this time, and are associated with the transition to the Iron Age (they used iron weapons/tools which were better than earlier bronze): the Sea Peoples, particularly the Philistines, who migrated from the Aegean world and settled on the southern coast, and the Israelites, whose settlements dotted the highlands. The growing separation between Israel and the "Palestinian Territories" led to a labour shortage in Israel, mainly in the construction industry. [373] After the 2015 Israeli elections, Netanyahu renewed his mandate as Prime Minister when Likud obtained 30 seats and formed a right-wing coalition government with Kulanu (10), The Jewish Home (8), and Orthodox parties Shas (7) and United Torah Judaism (6), the bare minimum of seats required to form a coalition. The principles established objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian Authority, as a prelude to a final treaty establishing a Palestinian state, in exchange for mutual recognition. This support was a huge boost for the Zionist cause because Great Britain controlled Palestine after the breakup of the Ottoman Empire following World War I. [168] Jews encountered as the Crusaders travelled across Europe were given a choice of conversion or murder, and almost always chose martyrdom. Jacob's descendants would regain control of Israel Written: about 750 BC Fulfilled: Since 1948 In Amos 9:14-15, the prophet said that there would come a time when the exiles of Israel would again have Israel as their own land . The Zionist Union alliance came second with 24 seats. [203], The Balfour declaration was published on the 2nd of November 1917 and the Bolsheviks seized control of Russia a week later. The tribe most recognized by modern readers is Judah. [348] Illegal immigrants arrived mainly from Africa in addition to foreign workers overstaying their visas. The nation of Israel was the people group in which Yahweh decided to make his representatives in the world as a party to the covenant of Abraham. Two days later Syria, Egypt and Jordan amassed troops along the Israeli borders, and Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Several of them made the decision to settle in the area, which changed the demographic structure. By July 1985, Israel's inflation, buttressed by complex index linking of salaries, had reached 480% per annum and was the highest in the world. U.S. President Harry S. Truman recognized the new nation on the same day. In 2005, all Jewish settlers were evacuated from Gaza (some forcibly) and their homes demolished. It was during the Babylonian captivity and this return to Israel that Ezekiel appeared as a prophet and provided the following information on the future existence of Israel as an independent nation: According to this passage, the people of Israel would not be free until this period of punishment passed. Lack of control over Palestinian areas was an important factor in causing civil war in Lebanon. In March 1990, Alignment leader Shimon Peres engineered a defeat of the government in a non-confidence vote and then tried to form a new government. The main underground Jewish militia, the Haganah, formed an alliance called the Jewish Resistance Movement with the Etzel and Stern Gang to fight the British. During the Knesset debate some 5,000 demonstrators gathered and riot police had to cordon the building. Meanwhile, anti-Semitism was growing at an alarming rate in central and southern Europe under fascist regimes, most notably in Germany and Italy. Palestinian Arabs and the Arab world, in general, saw this establishment as a major encroachment upon Arab sovereignty, and the Arab League nations of Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon rushed to Palestinian aid and declared war on the new Israeli state. [389] An Israeli Arab party, Ra'am, was included in the government coalition for the first time in decades. [citation needed] In 1909 residents of Jaffa bought land outside the city walls and built the first entirely Hebrew-speaking town, Ahuzat Bayit (later renamed Tel Aviv). [53] Another important discovery of the period is the Mesha Stele, a Moabite stele found in Dhiban, now in the Louvre. [citation needed]. His mother Helena made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (326328) and led the construction of the Church of the Nativity (birthplace of Jesus in Bethlehem), the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (burial site of Jesus in Jerusalem) and other key churches that still exist. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. The Yemenite children affair led to the first Israeli public inquiry (the Fromkin Inquiry),[285] the collapse of the coalition, and an election in 1951, with little change in the results. By 1947 the Labour Government was ready to refer the Palestine problem to the newly created United Nations. [106][107][non-primary source needed] In 64 CE, the Temple High Priest Joshua ben Gamla introduced a religious requirement for Jewish boys to learn to read from the age of six. King Cyrus said, "Rebuild the temple. [128][129][130][131] No other revolt led to a province being renamed. [68][69] They urged rulers and the general populace to adhere to god-conscious ethical ideals, seeing the Assyrian invasions as a divine punishment of the collective resulting from ethical failures. [301][302][303] On 26 May Nasser declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel". The best of these became members of the Sanhedrin,[141] which was located first at Sepphoris and later at Tiberias. Internal fighting led to Shinui's demise at the next election. However, Israel has restarted the process of settling Palestinian territory and this is what Israel looks like today. In 425, following the death of the last Nasi, Gamliel VI, the Sanhedrin was officially abolished and the title of Nasi banned. The truth is that Israeli statehood in 1948 was and is irrelevant to Bible prophecy. The revolt was led by Judas Maccabeus, son of Mattathias, who conquered Jerusalem in 164 BCE and re-established worship at the temple. During the struggle, nine Turkish activists were killed. The government of Palestine has split in two. To cover 900 miles in that time, they needed to average 14.29 miles/per day, 6 days per week - a task well within reach. She encouraged Jewish refugees to settle in the area and established a Hebrew printing press. In addition, a growing number of Africans began illegally migrating to Israel. Meir was the first female prime minister of Israel and the first woman to have headed a Middle Eastern state in modern times. The Chosen Few: How education shaped Jewish History, Botticini and Eckstein, Princeton 2012, page 71 and chapters 4 and 5, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJacobson2001 (. It thus increased the power of the smaller parties. Israel made a secret agreement with the French at Svres to co-ordinate military operations against Egypt. [109] Jesus of Nazareth, who was active during the early 1st century CE, challenged the Jewish authorities and preached an observance of the law based on moral principles, love of one's fellow man and God. In 2004, the Black Hebrews were granted permanent residency in Israel. The movement grew and spread across Europe. On 31 May 2010, an international incident broke out in the Mediterranean Sea when foreign activists trying to break the maritime blockade over Gaza, clashed with Israeli troops. In 1990, the Soviet Union finally permitted free emigration of Soviet Jews to Israel. Israel was to attack Egypt, and Britain and France would then call on both sides to withdraw. )An Archaeological Assessment by Gideon Avni in Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research No. [72][77] A few years later, Zedekiah launched another revolt against Babylon, and an army was sent to conquer Jerusalem. In January 1492, the last Muslim state was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to convert or leave without their property. [103] The Hasmoneans had good relations with the Roman Republic, however growing tension between Pharisees and Sadducees led to a conflict over the succession to Janneus, in which the warring parties invited Roman intervention on their behalf. History of the Jewish was recorded in the Bible, by historians outside of the Bible, and through archeology. Immediately following the declaration of the new state, both superpower leaders, US President Harry S. Truman and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, recognized the new state. In the Middle East, the war had made Britain conscious of its dependence on Arab oil. [91] The first translation of the Hebrew Bible, the Greek Septuagint, was made in 3rd century BCE Alexandria, during the rule of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, for the Library of Alexandria.

Thirsty Turtle Thursday, Articles W